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universal fact

Толкование Перевод

1 universal fact
1. общепризнанный факт
общепризнанный факт
—
[Л.Г.Суменко. Англо-русский словарь по информационным технологиям. М.: ГП ЦНИИС, 2003.]

Тематики
- информационные технологии в целом
EN
- universal fact
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > universal fact
2 universal fact

универсальный факт

Англо-русский словарь по исследованиям и ноу-хау > universal fact
3 Language

   1) The Book of Nature Is Written in the Language of Mathematics

   Philosophy is written in that great book, the universe, which is always open, right before our eyes. But one cannot understand this book without first learning to understand the language and to know the characters in which it is written. It is written in the language of mathematics, and the characters are triangles, circles, and other figures. Without these, one cannot understand a single word of it, and just wanders in a dark labyrinth. (Galileo, 1990, p. 232)

   2) Arranging Speech so as to Reply Appropriately

   It never happens that it [a nonhuman animal] arranges its speech in various ways in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. (Descartes, 1970a, p. 116)

   3) No Other Animal Has the Language Capacity of the Human

   It is a very remarkable fact that there are none so depraved and stupid, without even excepting idiots, that they cannot arrange different words together, forming of them a statement by which they make known their thoughts; while, on the other hand, there is no other animal, however perfect and fortunately circumstanced it may be, which can do the same. (Descartes, 1967, p. 116)

   4) Human Beings Do Not Live Only in the World of Objects

   Human beings do not live in the object world alone, nor alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reﬂection. The fact of the matter is that the "real world" is to a large extent unconsciously built on the language habits of the group.... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation. (Sapir, 1921, p. 75)

   5) Language Powerfully Conditions All Our Thinking

   It powerfully conditions all our thinking about social problems and processes.... No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same worlds with different labels attached. (Sapir, 1985, p. 162)

   6) A List of Language Games

   [A list of language games, not meant to be exhaustive:]

   Giving orders, and obeying them- Describing the appearance of an object, or giving its measurements- Constructing an object from a description (a drawing)Reporting an eventSpeculating about an eventForming and testing a hypothesisPresenting the results of an experiment in tables and diagramsMaking up a story; and reading itPlay actingSinging catchesGuessing riddlesMaking a joke; and telling it

   Solving a problem in practical arithmeticTranslating from one language into another

   LANGUAGE Asking, thanking, cursing, greeting, and praying-. (Wittgenstein, 1953, Pt. I, No. 23, pp. 11 e-12 e)

   7) Language Constrains Certain Modes of Interpretation

   We dissect nature along lines laid down by our native languages.... The world is presented in a kaleidoscopic ﬂux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... No individual is free to describe nature with absolute impartiality but is constrained to certain modes of interpretation even while he thinks himself most free. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 153, 213-214)

   8) We Dissect Nature in Accordance with Our Native Languages

   We dissect nature along the lines laid down by our native languages.

   The categories and types that we isolate from the world of phenomena we do not find there because they stare every observer in the face; on the contrary, the world is presented in a kaleidoscopic ﬂux of impressions which has to be organized by our minds-and this means largely by the linguistic systems in our minds.... We are thus introduced to a new principle of relativity, which holds that all observers are not led by the same physical evidence to the same picture of the universe, unless their linguistic backgrounds are similar or can in some way be calibrated. (Whorf, 1956, pp. 213-214)

   9) The Forms of a Person's Thoughts Are Controlled by Unperceived Patterns of His Own Language

   The forms of a person's thoughts are controlled by inexorable laws of pattern of which he is unconscious. These patterns are the unperceived intricate systematizations of his own language-shown readily enough by a candid comparison and contrast with other languages, especially those of a different linguistic family. (Whorf, 1956, p. 252)

    10) The Analysis of Certain Types of Utterances

   It has come to be commonly held that many utterances which look like statements are either not intended at all, or only intended in part, to record or impart straightforward information about the facts.... Many traditional philosophical perplexities have arisen through a mistake-the mistake of taking as straightforward statements of fact utterances which are either (in interesting non-grammatical ways) nonsensical or else intended as something quite different. (Austin, 1962, pp. 2-3)

    11) The Dictionary of a Language Is a System of Concepts

   In general, one might define a complex of semantic components connected by logical constants as a concept. The dictionary of a language is then a system of concepts in which a phonological form and certain syntactic and morphological characteristics are assigned to each concept. This system of concepts is structured by several types of relations. It is supplemented, furthermore, by redundancy or implicational rules..., representing general properties of the whole system of concepts.... At least a relevant part of these general rules is not bound to particular languages, but represents presumably universal structures of natural languages. They are not learned, but are rather a part of the human ability to acquire an arbitrary natural language. (Bierwisch, 1970, pp. 171-172)

    12) Talk about the Evolution of the Language Capacity is Beside the Point

   In studying the evolution of mind, we cannot guess to what extent there are physically possible alternatives to, say, transformational generative grammar, for an organism meeting certain other physical conditions characteristic of humans. Conceivably, there are none-or very few-in which case talk about evolution of the language capacity is beside the point. (Chomsky, 1972, p. 98)

    13) The Development of Language

   [It is] truth value rather than syntactic well-formedness that chieﬂy governs explicit verbal reinforcement by parents-which renders mildly paradoxical the fact that the usual product of such a training schedule is an adult whose speech is highly grammatical but not notably truthful. (R. O. Brown, 1973, p. 330)

    14) Sentential and Conceptual Levels in Language

   he conceptual base is responsible for formally representing the concepts underlying an utterance.... A given word in a language may or may not have one or more concepts underlying it.... On the sentential level, the utterances of a given language are encoded within a syntactic structure of that language. The basic construction of the sentential level is the sentence.

   The next highest level... is the conceptual level. We call the basic construction of this level the conceptualization. A conceptualization consists of concepts and certain relations among those concepts. We can consider that both levels exist at the same point in time and that for any unit on one level, some corresponding realizate exists on the other level. This realizate may be null or extremely complex.... Conceptualizations may relate to other conceptualizations by nesting or other specified relationships. (Schank, 1973, pp. 191-192)

    15) Linguistic Realities Have Not Yet Been Captured by Theoretical Models

   The mathematics of multi-dimensional interactive spaces and lattices, the projection of "computer behavior" on to possible models of cerebral functions, the theoretical and mechanical investigation of artificial intelligence, are producing a stream of sophisticated, often suggestive ideas.

   But it is, I believe, fair to say that nothing put forward until now in either theoretic design or mechanical mimicry comes even remotely in reach of the most rudimentary linguistic realities. (Steiner, 1975, p. 284)

    16) The Final Steps to Human Language

   The step from the simple tool to the master tool, a tool to make tools (what we would now call a machine tool), seems to me indeed to parallel the final step to human language, which I call reconstitution. It expresses in a practical and social context the same understanding of hierarchy, and shows the same analysis by function as a basis for synthesis. (Bronowski, 1977, pp. 127-128)

    17) The Inadequacy of Formal Linguistic Models for Ordinary Language Usage

    t is the language donn eґ in which we conduct our lives.... We have no other. And the danger is that formal linguistic models, in their loosely argued analogy with the axiomatic structure of the mathematical sciences, may block perception.... It is quite conceivable that, in language, continuous induction from simple, elemental units to more complex, realistic forms is not justified. The extent and formal "undecidability" of context-and every linguistic particle above the level of the phoneme is context-bound-may make it impossible, except in the most abstract, meta-linguistic sense, to pass from "pro-verbs," "kernals," or "deep deep structures" to actual speech. (Steiner, 1975, pp. 111-113)

    18) When a Language Is an Abstract Machine

   A higher-level formal language is an abstract machine. (Weizenbaum, 1976, p. 113)

    19) Metaphor and Metonymy Underpin the Formation of Linguistic Signs

   Jakobson sees metaphor and metonymy as the characteristic modes of binarily opposed polarities which between them underpin the two-fold process of selection and combination by which linguistic signs are formed.... Thus messages are constructed, as Saussure said, by a combination of a "horizontal" movement, which combines words together, and a "vertical" movement, which selects the particular words from the available inventory or "inner storehouse" of the language. The combinative (or syntagmatic) process manifests itself in contiguity (one word being placed next to another) and its mode is metonymic. The selective (or associative) process manifests itself in similarity (one word or concept being "like" another) and its mode is metaphoric. The "opposition" of metaphor and metonymy therefore may be said to represent in effect the essence of the total opposition between the synchronic mode of language (its immediate, coexistent, "vertical" relationships) and its diachronic mode (its sequential, successive, lineal progressive relationships). (Hawkes, 1977, pp. 77-78)

    20) Language and the Analysis of Nature

   It is striking that the layered structure that man has given to language constantly reappears in his analyses of nature. (Bronowski, 1977, p. 121)

    21) Correspondence Rules for Mapping Old Theory into Subsets of New Theory

   First, [an ideal intertheoretic reduction] provides us with a set of rules"correspondence rules" or "bridge laws," as the standard vernacular has it-which effect a mapping of the terms of the old theory (T o) onto a subset of the expressions of the new or reducing theory (T n). These rules guide the application of those selected expressions of T n in the following way: we are free to make singular applications of their correspondencerule doppelgangers in T o....

   Second, and equally important, a successful reduction ideally has the outcome that, under the term mapping effected by the correspondence rules, the central principles of T o (those of semantic and systematic importance) are mapped onto general sentences of T n that are theorems of Tn. (P. Churchland, 1979, p. 81)

    22) The Inclusion of Non- linguistic Factors in a Theory of Grammar

   If non-linguistic factors must be included in grammar: beliefs, attitudes, etc. [this would] amount to a rejection of the initial idealization of language as an object of study. A priori such a move cannot be ruled out, but it must be empirically motivated. If it proves to be correct, I would conclude that language is a chaos that is not worth studying.... Note that the question is not whether beliefs or attitudes, and so on, play a role in linguistic behavior and linguistic judgments... [but rather] whether distinct cognitive structures can be identified, which interact in the real use of language and linguistic judgments, the grammatical system being one of these. (Chomsky, 1979, pp. 140, 152-153)

    23) Language Is Inevitably Inﬂuenced by Specific Contexts of Human Interaction

   Language cannot be studied in isolation from the investigation of "rationality." It cannot afford to neglect our everyday assumptions concerning the total behavior of a reasonable person.... An integrational linguistics must recognize that human beings inhabit a communicational space which is not neatly compartmentalized into language and nonlanguage.... It renounces in advance the possibility of setting up systems of forms and meanings which will "account for" a central core of linguistic behavior irrespective of the situation and communicational purposes involved. (Harris, 1981, p. 165)

    24) The Genetic Blueprints of Language

   By innate [linguistic knowledge], Chomsky simply means "genetically programmed." He does not literally think that children are born with language in their heads ready to be spoken. He merely claims that a "blueprint is there, which is brought into use when the child reaches a certain point in her general development. With the help of this blueprint, she analyzes the language she hears around her more readily than she would if she were totally unprepared for the strange gabbling sounds which emerge from human mouths. (Aitchison, 1987, p. 31)

    25) Languages Are Machines

   Looking at ourselves from the computer viewpoint, we cannot avoid seeing that natural language is our most important "programming language." This means that a vast portion of our knowledge and activity is, for us, best communicated and understood in our natural language.... One could say that natural language was our first great original artifact and, since, as we increasingly realize, languages are machines, so natural language, with our brains to run it, was our primal invention of the universal computer. One could say this except for the sneaking suspicion that language isn't something we invented but something we became, not something we constructed but something in which we created, and recreated, ourselves. (Leiber, 1991, p. 8)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Language
4 accept

əkˈsept гл.
1) принимать, брать;
соглашаться accept blindly ≈ слепо поверить accept fully ≈ полностью принять accept readily ≈ принять с готовностью She accepted his present unwillingly. ≈ Она с неохотой приняла от него подарок. All those invited to next week's peace conference have accepted. ≈ Все, кто был приглашен на конференцию по вопросам мирного урегулирования, которая состоится на следующей неделе, были приняты. accept an offer accept a proposal accept a suggestion accept a post accept the responsibility accept an apology accept a challenge accept the resignation of the cabinet accept in deposit accept bribes accept equipment accept on condition that
2) допускать, признавать;
принимать, мириться I accept him as the greatest expert in this field. ≈ Я признаю, что он крупнейший специалист в этой области. I accept the correctness of your statement. ≈ Признаю правильность вашего утверждения. I accept that the proposal may be defeated. ≈ Я допускаю, что это предложение может быть отклонено. accept for a fact accept the inevitable accept the situation be generally accepted be universally accepted Syn: acknowledge
1)
3) принимать (в клуб и т. п.) ;
относиться благосклонно, считать( кого-л.) приемлемым, подходящим Should The British Army accept gays? ≈ Принимают ли в Британскую Армию гомосексуалистов? Many men still have difficulty accepting a woman as a business partner. ≈ Многие мужчины до сих пор испытывают неудобство, принимая женщин в качестве деловых партнеров.
4) коммерч. акцептовать (вексель), принимать (к оплате) to accept a bill ≈ акцептировать вексель to accept a check ≈ принимать к оплате или в уплату чек
5) биол. не вызывать отторжения drugs which will fool the body into accepting transplants ≈ лекарства, позволяющие обмануть защитные силы организма с тем, чтобы не вызывать отторжения пересаживаемых органов ∙ to accept persons ≈ проявлять лицеприятие
принимать;
брать предложенное;
- to * a present принять подарок;
- to * in deposit принимать на хранение;
- to * bribes брать взятки;
- to * equipment производить приемку оборудования соглашаться;
реагировать положительно;
- to * office согласиться занять должность;
- to * the resignation of the cabinet принять отставку правительства;
- to * an offer принять предложение;
- he proposed and she *ed him он сделал предложение, и она согласилась признавать, принимать, допускать;
- to * smb.'s views признавать чьи-лю взгляды;
- to * smth. at its face-value принимать что-л. за чистую монету;
- to * as valid and binding (юридическое) признать действительным и обязательным;
- he refused to * the hypothesis он решительно отверг эту гипотезу;
- the idea of universal education is widely *ed идея всеобщего образования получила широкое признание верить;
- the teacher won't * your excuse такой отговорке учитель не поверит;
- to * Catholicism перейти в католичество принимать как неизбежное;
мириться с чем-л.;
- to * poor living conditions мириться с плохими условиями жизни;
- to * the situation мириться с положением принимать (в клуб и т. п.) ;
считать кого-л. приемлемым или подходящим;
- they *ed her as one of the group они приняли ее в свою среду;
- he is *ed in this house его в этом доме принимают преим (юридическое) (парламентское) одобрить, утвердить;
- the report of the committee was *ed доклад комитета был принят;
- to * the record( спортивное) зарегистрировать рекорд( коммерческое) акцептовать вексель (техническое) подходить, соответствовать;
вставляться;
- this socket won't * a three-pronged plug к этой розетке не подходит трехштекерная вилка (биология) не вызывать отторжения

accept акцептировать ~ ком. акцептовать (вексель) ;
to accept persons проявлять лицеприятие;
to accept the fact примириться с фактом ~ акцептовать вексель ~ брать ~ допускать;
соглашаться;
признавать;
I accept the correctness of your statement признаю правильность вашего утверждения ~ допускать ~ одобрять ~ относиться благосклонно ~ подходить ~ признавать ~ принимать;
to accept an offer принять предложение ~ принимать ~ соглашаться ~ соответствовать ~ считать приемлемым ~ утвердить

~ принимать;
to accept an offer принять предложение offer: accept an ~ принимать предложение

~ for honour акцептовать вексель для спасения кредита векселедателя

~ for honour supra protest акцептовать вексель после его опротестования ~ for honour supra protest оплачивать вексель после его опротестования

~ ком. акцептовать (вексель) ;
to accept persons проявлять лицеприятие;
to accept the fact примириться с фактом

~ the challenge принимать вызов

~ the directors' report and accounts получать отчет правления и финансовую отчетность

~ ком. акцептовать (вексель) ;
to accept persons проявлять лицеприятие;
to accept the fact примириться с фактом

~ допускать;
соглашаться;
признавать;
I accept the correctness of your statement признаю правильность вашего утверждения

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > accept
5 elicit

ɪˈlɪsɪt извлекать, выявлять - to * a fact выявить факт - to * truth by discussion установить истину в споре (from) делать вывод, выводить - to * a principle from data на основе имеющихся данных вывести принцип добиться;
допытаться - to * a reply добиться ответа - to * universal admiration стать предметом всеобщего восхищения - to * applause from an audience вызвать аплодисменты аудитории - he could not * a syllable from her он не мог выжать из нее ни слова /звука/ elicit выявлять ~ делать вывод, устанавливать ~ допытываться;
to elicit a reply добиться ответа ~ извлекать;
вытягивать;
вызывать, выявлять;
to elicit a fact выявить факт;
to elicit applause вызывать аплодисменты ~ извлекать;
вытягивать;
вызывать, выявлять;
to elicit a fact выявить факт;
to elicit applause вызывать аплодисменты ~ допытываться;
to elicit a reply добиться ответа ~ извлекать;
вытягивать;
вызывать, выявлять;
to elicit a fact выявить факт;
to elicit applause вызывать аплодисменты

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > elicit
6 Artificial Intelligence

   1) Programs and the Complexity of Human Mental Processes

   In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)

   2) Artificial Intelligence Is an Engineering Discipline

   Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)

   3) A Sceptical View of Artificial Intelligence

   Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inﬂated predictions....

   When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)

   4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually

   Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   5) Problems in Machine Intelligence Arise Because Things Obvious to Any Person Are Not Represented in the Program

   Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)

   6) The Meaning of a Symbolic Description

   What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)

   7) The Principle of Artificial Intelligence

   [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)

   8) Artificial Intelligence Recognizes the Need for Knowledge in Its Systems

   The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)

   9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form

   The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)

    10) There Are Many Types of Reasoning

   There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:

    Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins ﬂy? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can ﬂy, so robins probably can ﬂy."

    Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)

    11) Programs Are Beginning to Do Things That Critics Have Asserted to Be Impossible

   Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)

    12) The Synthesis of Man and Machine

   Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)

    13) The Thesis of Good Old-Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI)

   The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)

    14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation

   It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)

    15) Four Kinds of Artificial Intelligence

   We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.

   ♦ Nonpsychological AI

   Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.

   ♦ Weak Psychological AI

   Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.

   ♦ Strong Psychological AI

... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)

   ♦ Suprapsychological AI

   Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)

    16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts

   Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)

    17) Form and Content Are Not Fundamentally Different

   Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System

   Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)

    19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence

   The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.

   The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)

    20) Mathematical Logic Provides the Basis for Theory in AI

   The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....

   AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)

    21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions

   In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)

    22) Definitions of Artificial Intelligence

   Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)

    23) The Computer Can Not Be a Model of the Mind

   Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)

    24) Computers Will Not Always Be Inferior to Human Brains

   The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence
7 recognition

ˌrekəɡˈnɪʃən сущ.
1) осознание, понимание;
сознание, представление the recognition that something isn't right ≈ осознание того, что что-то не так recognition of pain, danger, fear ≈ осязание боли, ощущение опасности, страха
2) признание;
одобрение( чьих-л. заслуг и т. п.) to give, grant recognition ≈ признавать to give, show no signs of recognition ≈ не подавать признаков одобрения to receive recognition for one's accomplishments from one's colleagues ≈ получить положительные отзывы коллег о своих достижениях to receive universal recognition ≈ получить всеобщее признание. to win, receive, meet with recognition (from the public) ≈ завоевать признание;
добиться, получить признание( публики) general recognition, universal recognition ≈ всеобщее признание growing recognition, wide recognition ≈ растущая популярность;
широкое признание in recognition of ≈ в знак признания Syn: approval, approbation
3) официальное признание а) дип. (законности правительства или независимости страны, тж. diplomatic recognition) de facto recognition de jure recognition official recognition public recognition tacit recognition б) юр. (санкция, утверждение какого-л. факта, статуса, претензии и т. п.) recognition of smb. as lawful heir ≈ признание кого-л. законным наследником guilt recognition ≈ признание вины в) парл. (право голоса, признание права выступления в президиуме)
4) узнавание, определение характерных черт кого-л. или чего-л., виденного или знакомого ранее, или по заданным характеристикам объекта) а) узнавание;
знак узнавания, приветствие( при встрече и т. п.) to escape recognition ≈ остаться неузнанным, инкогнито to give smb. a sign/smile/nod of recognition ≈ узнать и приветствовать кого-л.;
улыбнуться/кивнуть кому-л. в знак приветствия beyond, out of, past recognition ≈ до неузнаваемости a passing recognition ≈ слабое и незаметное приветствие (на ходу) б) псих. узнавание в) воен. обнаружение;
опознавание( цели, объекта и т. п.) recognition lights ≈ мор. опознавательные огни ∙ optical character recognition magnetic ink character recognition Syn: identification г) компьют. распознавание узнавание;
опознавание - * site (биохимия) центр узнавания - my * of him was immediate я сразу узнал его - to escape * остаться неузнанным, сохранить инкогнито - to alter beyond /past/ * изменить или измениться до неузнаваемости сознание, осознание - * of danger осознание опасности - the * that certain things were not true сознание того, что не все это правда признание, одобрение - to win * from the public завоевать признание - he received no * он остался непризнанным - in * of your services в знак признания ваших заслуг - fact which has obtained general * общепризнанный факт (юридическое) официальное признание (факта, претензии и т. п.) ;
утверждение, санкция - * of the child as lawful heir признание ребенка законным наследником - * of the woman as lawful wife признание женщины законной женой - * as a person before the law признание правосубъективности (дипломатическое) признание (суверенитета страны, законности правительства и т. п.) - diplomatic * дипломатическое признание - de facto * признание де-факто - * of belligerency признание воюющей стороной - to extend * to a state признать какое-л. государство - to withold * from a state не признавать какое-л. государство приветствие (при встрече) - he only gave me a passing * он лишь кивнул мне на ходу - he gave me a smile of * он приветствовал меня улыбкой (парламентское) предоставление слова - * of a speaker by the chair предоставление председателем собрания слова желающему выступить( военное) обнаружение, опознавание - target * обнаружение /опознавание/ цели - * and identification system система опознавания самолетов - * lights (морское) опознавательные огни (юридическое) (историческое) расследование;
судебное следствие( о причинах смерти) (компьютерное) распознавание - optical character * оптическое распознавание символов character ~ вчт. распознавание символов collective ~ коллективное признание entry ~ вчт. распознавание ввода feature ~ распознавание признаков mutual ~ взаимное признание optical character ~ вчт. оптическое распознавание символов pattern ~ распознавание образов recognition одобрение ~ опознавание ~ официальное признание (независимости и суверенитета страны) ~ официальное признание ~ подтверждение ~ последующее одобрение, последующее подтверждение ~ предоставление слова (на заседании) ~ предоставление слова ~ признание;
одобрение;
to win (to receive, to meet with) recognition from the public завоевать (получить) признание публики ~ признание ~ вчт. распознавание ~ распознавание ~ санкция ~ узнавание;
опознание ~ утверждение ~ of authorization соглашение о наделении правами revenue ~ одобрение годового дохода speaker ~ распознавание говорящего speech ~ распознавание речи structural pattern ~ вчт. структурное распознавание образов visual ~ распознавание зрительных образов ~ признание;
одобрение;
to win (to receive, to meet with) recognition from the public завоевать (получить) признание публики

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > recognition
8 law

n

1) закон

- in law

- according to law

- by authority of law

- force of law

- in law and in fact

- act of the law

- body of laws

- rule of law

- protect by the rule of law

- abrogation of laws

- breach of law

- intended breach of the law

- prescribed by the law

- sphere of application of the law

- process of law

- offences against law

- in the silence of the law

- abolish a law

- be equal before the law

- be effective as law

- become law

- break the law

- violate the law

- come into conflict with law

- enact a law

- evade beyond the law

- go beyond the law

- comply with the law

- introduce the law

- make a law

- observe the laws

- promulgate a law

- repeal a law

- stretch the law

- except from operation of a law

- toughen up laws

- hold good in law

- keep within the law

- lay down the law

- laws and regulations

- laws and regulations in force in a country

- national laws and regulations

- internal laws and regulations

- laws and regulations regarding privileges and immunities of international organizations

- laws and regulations of the host country

- laws and regulations on the regime of the territorial sea

- accident investigation laws and regulations

- in accordance with laws and regulations

- laws and customs applicable in armed conflicts

- laws and customs of war on land

- laws and practice in the country

- law and order

2) право; правоведение; законодательство

- laws concerning acquisition of nationality

- laws concerning the treatment of aliens

- law relating to the environment

- system of law

- choice of law

- conflict of laws

- law of conflict of laws

- definition of law

- general principles of law

- source of law

- unity of the law

- restatement of law

- enact into law

- enforce the law

- recognize as law

- conditions provided by the law

- the law of the state requested shall apply in all cases

- take law advice

3) судебный процесс

- take law proceedings against smb.

- institute law proceedings against smb.

4) закон (природы, научный)

- conformity to the laws of history

5) правило

•

- humanitarian law of war

- international criminal law relating to warfare

- land law

- constitutional law

- Law of the Hague

- existing law

- humanitarian law

- law government

- system of conventional rules of international law

- law of international monetary transactions

- full subject of international law

- public law

- universal international law

- doctrine of the law of nature

- remain under the protection and authority of the principles of international law

- ambassadorial law

- functioning of international law

- institution of international law

- range of the domination of international law

- international humanitarian law applicable in armed conflicts

- principles of international economic development law

- merchant law

- christian law

- judiciary law

- general rules of international law

- emergency law

- organic law

- customary rules of international law

- uniform law on international sales

- free-trade law

- law of obligation

- laws of warfare at sea

- law of descents

- law of the sea

- special rules of international law

- law of international transport by sea

- binding nature of international law

- fundamental law

- under common law

- naval prize law

- emergency laws

- basic laws of development

- domestic law

- law of criminal procedure

- local rules of international law

- law institution

- Law of Geneva

- law of nature

- local law

- equity law

- common law

- environmental law

- conventional law

- law of arbitral procedure

- municipal public law

- Islamic law

- law of treaties

- substantive law

- Koranic law

- club law

- universally recognized principles of international law

- tacit law

- law ethics

- law of domestic relations

- law foundation

- rule of the law of nations

- case law

- object of international law

- law order

- subject of international law

- good law

- law of succession in respect of treaties on economic and financial matters

- municipal law

- international economic and investment law

- fiscal law

- written law

- State law

- law language

- parliamentary law

- law of contract

- law profession

- rule of international law

- law of civil procedure

- law of persons

- primacy of international law over internal legislation

- consuetudinary law

- incompatibility with the rules of international law

- dictates of international law

- under international law

- natural law

- customary maritime law

- penal law

- judicial law

- codification of international law

- judge-made law

- law act

- labour law

- labour laws

- air law

- law of international transport by air

- administrative law

- law of actions

- law person

- general international law

- laws of humanity

- sanitary laws

- break the law of nations

- fundamental notions of international law

- international economic development law

- law costs

- settled law

- political law

- law of international investment

- law of penal procedure

- church law

- martial law

- comparative law

- private law

- principle of conventional international law

- law history

- internal laws

- international private law

- Admiralty law

- law of insurance

- English law

- maritime law

- agrarian law

- law of uneven development

- dialectical law of opposites

- regional international law

- conventional international law

- incompatibility with the norms of international law

- law obligation

- international law

- law of evidence

- laws of the receiving state

- established law

- law of peace

- nationality law

- foreign public law

- particular international law

- universal character of international law

- commercial law

- business law

- fulfilment in good faith of obligations under international law

- safety law

- diplomatic law

- law action

- extend free-trade law to farm produce

- law of nations

- trade law

- law claim

- law of state responsibility

- state law

- law of honour

- real subject of international law

- universally recognized rule of the law of nations

- Crown law

- law voter

- governed by international law

- be pursuant to the domestic law of the receiving state

- pass laws

- harsh law

- effectiveness of international law

- naval law

- source of international law

- law of procedure

- inconsistency with international law

- outer space law

- law of customs

- law of international trade

- unenforced law

- civil law

- be bound by the law of nations

- principle of international law

- public international law

- national law

- customary law

- doctrine of international law

- internal law

- law procedure

- law of economic rationality

- criminal law

- law decision

- customary international law

- violation of international law

- rule of customary international law

- law of war

- revised laws

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > law
9 malice

ˈmælɪs сущ.
1) злоба to bear malice (to) ≈ таить злобу (против кого-л.), злобствовать felt no malice toward their former enemies ≈ не чувствовать злобы по отношению к своим бывшим врагам Syn: spite, rage
2) юр. злой умысел actual malice ≈ злой умысел, установленный по фактическим обстоятельствам дела challengeable malice ≈ спорный злой умысел challenged malice ≈ оспоренный злой умысел established malice ≈ доказанный злой умысел express malice ≈ явно выраженный злой умысел found malice ≈ признанный злой умысел malice aforethought ≈ заранее обдуманный злой умысел malice in fact ≈ злой умысел, установленный по фактическим обстоятельствам дела murderous malice ≈ злой умысел на совершение убийства presumed malice ≈ презюмируемый злой умысел questionable malice ≈ спорный злой умысел testified malice ≈ злой умысел по свидетельским показаниям universal malice ≈ неконкретизированный злой умысел злоба;
злость - to bear smb. *, to bear * against /to(wards) / smb. затаить злобу против кого-л.;
иметь зуб против кого-л. - I bear you no * я не питаю к тебе злобы;
я не питаю к тебе зла - to say smth. with * говорить что-л. со злостью /злобно, злорадно, с ехидством/ - to be exposed to the * of winds and weather( образное) быть отданным во власть стихий (юридическое) преступное намерение;
злой умысел - * in fact, actual * преступный умысел, вытекающий из самого преступного действия - to stand mute of * отказаться отвечать на вопросы суда malice злоба;
to bear malice (to) таить злобу (против кого-л.), злобствовать malice злоба;
to bear malice (to) таить злобу (против кого-л.), злобствовать ~ юр. злой умысел ~ злой умысел ~ преступное намерение

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > malice
10 Psychology

   1) The Knowledge of Ourselves

   We come therefore now to that knowledge whereunto the ancient oracle directeth us, which is the knowledge of ourselves; which deserveth the more accurate handling, by how much it toucheth us more nearly. This knowledge, as it is the end and term of natural philosophy in the intention of man, so notwithstanding it is but a portion of natural philosophy in the continent of nature.... [W]e proceed to human philosophy or Humanity, which hath two parts: the one considereth man segregate, or distributively; the other congregate, or in society. So as Human philosophy is either Simple and Particular, or Conjugate and Civil. Humanity Particular consisteth of the same parts whereof man consisteth; that is, of knowledges which respect the Body, and of knowledges that respect the Mind... how the one discloseth the other and how the one worketh upon the other... [:] the one is honored with the inquiry of Aristotle, and the other of Hippocrates. (Bacon, 1878, pp. 236-237)

   2) As a Science, Psychology Is Distinct

   The claims of Psychology to rank as a distinct science are... not smaller but greater than those of any other science. If its phenomena are contemplated objectively, merely as nervo-muscular adjustments by which the higher organisms from moment to moment adapt their actions to environing co-existences and sequences, its degree of specialty, even then, entitles it to a separate place. The moment the element of feeling, or consciousness, is used to interpret nervo-muscular adjustments as thus exhibited in the living beings around, objective Psychology acquires an additional, and quite exceptional, distinction. (Spencer, 1896, p. 141)

   3) Psychology Can Never Be an Exact Natural Science

   Kant once declared that psychology was incapable of ever raising itself to the rank of an exact natural science. The reasons that he gives... have often been repeated in later times. In the first place, Kant says, psychology cannot become an exact science because mathematics is inapplicable to the phenomena of the internal sense; the pure internal perception, in which mental phenomena must be constructed,-time,-has but one dimension. In the second place, however, it cannot even become an experimental science, because in it the manifold of internal observation cannot be arbitrarily varied,-still less, another thinking subject be submitted to one's experiments, comformably to the end in view; moreover, the very fact of observation means alteration of the observed object. (Wundt, 1904, p. 6)

   4) How a " Mathematical" Psychology May Be Realized in Practice

   It is [Gustav] Fechner's service to have found and followed the true way; to have shown us how a "mathematical psychology" may, within certain limits, be realized in practice.... He was the first to show how Herbart's idea of an "exact psychology" might be turned to practical account. (Wundt, 1904, pp. 6-7)

   5) The Rights of Psychology as Science

   "Mind," "intellect," "reason," "understanding," etc. are concepts... that existed before the advent of any scientific psychology. The fact that the naive consciousness always and everywhere points to internal experience as a special source of knowledge, may, therefore, be accepted for the moment as sufficient testimony to the rights of psychology as science.... "Mind," will accordingly be the subject, to which we attribute all the separate facts of internal observation as predicates. The subject itself is determined p. 17) wholly and exclusively by its predicates. (Wundt, 1904,

   6) The Study of Animal Psychology

   The study of animal psychology may be approached from two different points of view. We may set out from the notion of a kind of comparative physiology of mind, a universal history of the development of mental life in the organic world. Or we may make human psychology the principal object of investigation. Then, the expressions of mental life in animals will be taken into account only so far as they throw light upon the evolution of consciousness in man.... Human psychology... may confine itself altogether to man, and generally has done so to far too great an extent. There are plenty of psychological text-books from which you would hardly gather that there was any other conscious life than the human. (Wundt, 1907, pp. 340-341)

   7) The Behaviorist's Formulation

   The Behaviorist began his own formulation of the problem of psychology by sweeping aside all medieval conceptions. He dropped from his scientific vocabulary all subjective terms such as sensation, perception, image, desire, purpose, and even thinking and emotion as they were subjectively defined. (Watson, 1930, pp. 5-6)

   8) Man Is a Microcosm

   According to the medieval classification of the sciences, psychology is merely a chapter of special physics, although the most important chapter; for man is a microcosm; he is the central figure of the universe. (deWulf, 1956, p. 125)

   9) Brief Overview of Psychology's History

   At the beginning of this century the prevailing thesis in psychology was Associationism.... Behavior proceeded by the stream of associations: each association produced its successors, and acquired new attachments with the sensations arriving from the environment.

   In the first decade of the century a reaction developed to this doctrine through the work of the Wurzburg school. Rejecting the notion of a completely self-determining stream of associations, it introduced the task ( Aufgabe) as a necessary factor in describing the process of thinking. The task gave direction to thought. A noteworthy innovation of the Wurzburg school was the use of systematic introspection to shed light on the thinking process and the contents of consciousness. The result was a blend of mechanics and phenomenalism, which gave rise in turn to two divergent antitheses, Behaviorism and the Gestalt movement. The behavioristic reaction insisted that introspection was a highly unstable, subjective procedure.... Behaviorism reformulated the task of psychology as one of explaining the response of organisms as a function of the stimuli impinging upon them and measuring both objectively. However, Behaviorism accepted, and indeed reinforced, the mechanistic assumption that the connections between stimulus and response were formed and maintained as simple, determinate functions of the environment.

   The Gestalt reaction took an opposite turn. It rejected the mechanistic nature of the associationist doctrine but maintained the value of phenomenal observation. In many ways it continued the Wurzburg school's insistence that thinking was more than association-thinking has direction given to it by the task or by the set of the subject. Gestalt psychology elaborated this doctrine in genuinely new ways in terms of holistic principles of organization.

   Today psychology lives in a state of relatively stable tension between the poles of Behaviorism and Gestalt psychology.... (Newell & Simon, 1963, pp. 279-280)

    10) Psychological Research Is Not Building toward Systematic Clarity

   As I examine the fate of our oppositions, looking at those already in existence as guide to how they fare and shape the course of science, it seems to me that clarity is never achieved. Matters simply become muddier and muddier as we go down through time. Thus, far from providing the rungs of a ladder by which psychology gradually climbs to clarity, this form of conceptual structure leads rather to an ever increasing pile of issues, which we weary of or become diverted from, but never really settle. (Newell, 1973b, pp. 288-289)

    11) Psychology as a Scientific Discipline

   The subject matter of psychology is as old as reﬂection. Its broad practical aims are as dated as human societies. Human beings, in any period, have not been indifferent to the validity of their knowledge, unconcerned with the causes of their behavior or that of their prey and predators. Our distant ancestors, no less than we, wrestled with the problems of social organization, child rearing, competition, authority, individual differences, personal safety. Solving these problems required insights-no matter how untutored-into the psychological dimensions of life. Thus, if we are to follow the convention of treating psychology as a young discipline, we must have in mind something other than its subject matter. We must mean that it is young in the sense that physics was young at the time of Archimedes or in the sense that geometry was "founded" by Euclid and "fathered" by Thales. Sailing vessels were launched long before Archimedes discovered the laws of bouyancy [ sic], and pillars of identical circumference were constructed before anyone knew that C IID. We do not consider the ship builders and stone cutters of antiquity physicists and geometers. Nor were the ancient cave dwellers psychologists merely because they rewarded the good conduct of their children. The archives of folk wisdom contain a remarkable collection of achievements, but craft-no matter how perfected-is not science, nor is a litany of successful accidents a discipline. If psychology is young, it is young as a scientific discipline but it is far from clear that psychology has attained this status. (Robinson, 1986, p. 12)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Psychology
11 Words

   1) Words and Images

   Words are but the images of matter... to fall in love with them is all one as to fall in love with a picture. (Bacon, 1878, p. 120)

   2) The First Symbols of the Child Are Word- Sentences Designating Action

   Chamberlin, Tracy, Dewey, Binet and others have shown that the child's symbols are action-words, i.e., their content is action. There is also practically universal agreement on the fact that the first symbols of the child are in reality word-sentences designating action and object or subject, or all three at once. (Markey, 1928, p. 50)

   3) The Relation of Words to Conceptual Development

   The child can very readily learn at the age of three that "right" and "left" each refers to a side of the body-but ah me, which one?... What is set up first is a conceptual organization. By the age of six the word "right" clearly and immediately means sidedness to the child. A considerable conceptual elaboration has already occurred, and the stimulus effectively arouses that structure; but it arouses no prompt, specific response.... With such facts, it becomes nonsense to explain man's conceptual development as exclusively consisting of verbal associations. (Hebb, 1949, p. 118)

   4) Words Are the Means by Which We Form All Our Abstractions

   The use of language is not confined to its being the medium through which we communicate ideas to one another.... Words are the instrument by which we form all our abstractions, by which we fashion and embody our ideas, and by which we are enabled to glide along a series of premises and conclusions with a rapidity so great as to leave in memory no trace of the successive steps of this process; and we remain unconscious of how much we owe to this. (Roget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 197)

   5) Disengaging the Interwoven Ramifications of Categories of Words

   Any attempt at a philosophical arrangement under categories of the words of our language must reveal the fact that it is impossible to separate and circumscribe the several groups by absolutely distinct boundaries. Were we to disengage their interwoven ramifications, and seek to confine every word to its main or original meaning, we should find some secondary meaning has become so firmly associated with many words and phrases, that to sever the alliance would be to deprive our language of the richness due to an infinity of natural adaptations. (Roget, quoted in Minsky, 1986, p. 206)

Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Words
12 elicit

[ıʹlısıt] v
1. извлекать, выявлять

to elicit a fact - выявить факт

to elicit truth by discussion - установить истину в споре

2. (from) делать вывод, выводить

to elicit a principle from data - на основе имеющихся данных вывести принцип

3. добиться; допытаться

to elicit a reply - добиться ответа

to elicit universal admiration - стать предметом всеобщего восхищения

to elicit applause from an audience - вызвать аплодисменты аудитории

he could not elicit a syllable from her - он не мог выжать из неё ни слова /звука/

НБАРС > elicit
13 recognition

n

признание (правительства и т.п.)

to accord recognition to a country — дипломатически признавать страну

to achieve recognition — добиться признания

to be met with wide recognition — получать широкое признание

to clamor for recognition — шумно требовать признания

to encourage recognition — поощрять признание

to enjoy nationwide recognition — пользоваться всенародным признанием

to extend recognition to a country — дипломатически признавать страну

to gain recognition — добиться признания

to give / to grant diplomatic recognition to a country — дипломатически признавать страну

to obtain recognition — добиться признания

to refuse diplomatic recognition — отказывать в дипломатическом признании

to seek recognition on the cheap — искать дешевый способ добиться признания

to seek international recognition — добиваться международного признания

to win recognition — добиться признания

to withdraw diplomatic recognition — отказываться от ( ранее объявленного) дипломатического признания

to withhold recognition from smb — не признавать кого-л.

- bare recognition
- de facto recognition
- de jure recognition
- diplomatic recognition
- immediate recognition
- implicit recognition
- international recognition
- legal recognition
- mutual de jure recognition
- mutual frontier recognition
- nationwide recognition
- official recognition
- outright recognition
- prompt recognition
- recognition de facto
- recognition de jure
- recognition from international community
- recognition of a belligerency
- recognition of claims
- recognition of new states
- recognition of smb's rights
- recognition of the legitimate rights
- straight-out recognition
- there is growing recognition of the fact that...
- unconditional recognition
- universal recognition
- wide recognition

Politics english-russian dictionary > recognition
14 certificate

sə'tifikət
noun

(a written official declaration of some fact: a marriage certificate.) attest, vitnemål, erklæring

- Certificate of Secondary Education

attest
--------
sertifikat

I
subst. \/səˈtɪfɪkət\/

1) attest, skriftlig bekreftelse, bevis, sertifikat, erklæring

2) vitnemål, diplom, eksamensbevis, vitnesbyrd

bankrupt's certificate forklaring: bevis på avslutning av konkursbo

certificate of authenticity ekthetsbevis

certificate of good conduct eller certificate of good character ( jus) vandelsattest

certificate of incorporation innregistreringsbevis, (inn)registreringsattest

certificate of matrimonial eligibility ekteskapsattest (som bevis på at en person oppfyller vilkårene for å kunne gifte seg)

certificate of origin opprinnelsesattest, opprinnelsesbevis

certificate of probate ( jus) skifteattest

Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) (tidligere, i England og Wales) avgangseksamen fra grunnskolen eksamensvitnemålet (selve papiret)

final certificate avgangsbevis

General Certificate of Education (GCE) (tidligere, i England og Wales) (hverdagslig, også o-level) forklaring: avgangseksamen fra ungdomsskolenivå (hverdagslig, også a-level)

forklaring: avgangseksamen fra videregående nivå eksamensvitnemålet (selve papiret)

General Certificate of Secondary Education

(GCSE) avgangseksamen på videregående nivå (erstatter fra 1988 GCE og CSE) eksamensvitnemålet (selve papiret)

guarantee certificate garantibevis

health certificate helseattest

savings certificate sparebrev

share certificate aksjebrev

tonnage certificate ( sjøfart) målebrev

universal certificate ( om film) tillatelse til å vises for alle aldre
II
verb \/səˈtɪfɪkeɪt\/

1) tildele vitnemål, utstede vitnemål

2) utstede attest for, utstede bevis til

certificated ( også) utdannet, godkjent, autorisert

• he's a certificated accountant

han er autorisert revisor

English-Norwegian dictionary > certificate
15 form

1) форма

2) установленный образец; бланк; формуляр; анкета

3) утверждать; образовывать; основывать (напр. фирму)

- in form and fact

- in bearer form

- in due form of law

- form of address

- form of collateral

- form of organization

- form of payment

- accidental form of value

- accounting forms

- alienated form of commodity

- application form

- blank form

- canonical form

- Census of Manufactures' long form

- census report form

- check form

- commodity form

- converted form of value

- documentary bill lodgment form

- elementary form of value

- equivalent form of commodity

- equivalent form of value

- expanded form of value

- extensive form

- general form of value

- general short form

- giro inpayment form

- household record form

- immediate social form of labor

- inquiry form

- legal form of organization

- legal form of ownership

- modified form of surplus value

- money form of value

- natural form of commodity

- nonprice forms of competition

- normal form

- observation form

- order form

- plant-record-unit form

- precanvass form

- preprinted order form

- printed order form

- proposal form for insurance

- reduced form

- relative form of value

- report form

- requisition form

- return-to-stock form

- simple commodity form

- skeleton form

- special forms of trading

- statutory form

- stock forms

- stock-order form

- stock transfer form

- store-room requisition form

- subscription form

- table form

- tabular form

- tax form

- umbrella form of price leadership

- universal equivalent form of value

- value form of commodity

- vertical form of balance sheet

- wage form

Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > form
16 law

1) закон, закономерность; правило

2) закон; законодательство; право

3) суд; судопроизводство; судебная практика

- by law

- by act of law

- contrary to law

- laws immanent in capitalist production

- in law and in fact

- law merchant

- become law

- break the law

- comply with the law

- repeal a law

- stretch the law

- sue under a law

- law of accidental error

- law of average rate of profit

- law of business corporations

- law of causality

- law of constant return

- law of contracts

- law of customs

- law of descents

- law of diminishing marginal utility

- law of diminishing returns

- law of diminishing utility

- law of equal marginal utilities

- law of exchange

- law of fertility

- law of indissolubility of marriage

- law of insurance

- law of large numbers

- law of least squares

- law of mortality

- law of nations

- laws of probability

- law of randomness

- law of retail gravitation

- law of satiety

- law of small numbers

- law of supply and demand

- law of uneven development

- law of uniform seniority

- law of universal causation

- law of value

- law of variation

- administrative law

- agrarian law

- antisymmetric law

- antitrust laws

- bank law

- bankrupt law

- binomial law

- blue sky laws

- business law

- case law

- census diaclosure law

- coercive laws of competition

- commercial law

- common law

- company law

- compound interest law

- customary law

- distribution law

- divorce law

- domestic law

- dualization law

- economic laws

- Engel's law

- equal opportunity law

- equipartition law

- exponential law

- factory safety laws

- fair-trade laws

- federal contract law

- fiscal law

- general law of capitalistic accumulation

- Gresham's law

- hyperexponential law

- immigration law

- international law

- judge-made law

- land law

- lending limitation law

- licensing law

- logistic law of growth

- maritime law

- mathematical frequency law

- minimum-hour law

- minimum-wage law

- monetary law

- normal probability law

- Okun's law

- Parkinson law

- patent law

- Poisson law

- poor laws

- private law

- products liability law

- public law

- public international law

- registration law

- resale price-maintenance laws

- revenue law

- Say's law

- settlement laws

- statistical law

- statute law

- sunshine laws

- usury laws

Англо-русский словарь по экономике и финансам > law
17 malice

злой умысел

- malice aforethought
- malice in fact
- malice in issue
- malice in law
- malice prepensed
- malice prepense
- actual malice
- challengeable malice
- challenged malice
- constructive malice
- contestable malice
- contested malice
- deliberate malice
- established malice
- evidenced malice
- evinced malice
- evincible malice
- express malice
- found malice
- general malice
- held malice
- implied malice
- legal malice
- murderous malice
- precedent malice
- presumed malice
- proved malice
- questionable malice
- questioned malice
- returned malice
- stated malice
- technical malice
- testified malice
- universal malice
- premediated malice
- presumptive malice

Англо-русский юридический словарь > malice
18 malice

['mælɪs]
сущ.

1) злоба

to bear malice to smb. — таить злобу против кого-л.

They felt no malice toward their former enemies. — Они не чувствовали злобы по отношению к своим бывшим врагам.

Syn:

spite, rage

2) юр. злой умысел

actual malice / malice in fact — злой умысел, установленный по фактическим обстоятельствам дела

challengeable malice / questionable malice — спорный злой умысел

challenged malice — оспоренный злой умысел

established malice — доказанный злой умысел

express malice — явно выраженный злой умысел

found malice — признанный злой умысел

malice aforethought — заранее обдуманный злой умысел

murderous malice — злой умысел на совершение убийства

presumed malice — предполагаемый злой умысел

testified malice — злой умысел по свидетельским показаниям

universal malice — неконкретизированный злой умысел

Англо-русский современный словарь > malice
19 form

1. n

1) формулировка; форма

- amendment in its present form

- in the forms set forth below

- change the form

- retain the text paragraph in its present form

- in due form of law

- in form and fact

2) церемония, порядок

- respect for form and precedence

- in due form

- in good and due form

3) установленный образец; бланк; формуляр; анкета

- in bearer form

4) вид, разновидность

•

- converted form of value

- form of warfare

- form of value

- form of payment

- form of government

- elementary form of value

- modified form of surplus value

- requisition form

- relative form of value

- total form of value

- money form of value

- value form

- latent form of capital

- order form

- form of competition

- form of activity

- check form

- forms of greetings

- universal equivalent form of value

- nonprice forms of competition

- equivalent form of value

- tax-filling form

- form of capital

- form of address

- expanded form of value

- form of organization

- internationally established forms

- general form of value

- feasible forms of competition

2. v

образовывать, создавать; формировать; учреждать

- form a committee

- form a government

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > form
20 elicit

1. v извлекать, выявлять

to elicit a fact — выявить факт

2. v делать вывод, выводить

to elicit a principle from data — на основе имеющихся данных вывести принцип

3. v добиться; допытаться

to elicit a reply — добиться ответа

to elicit universal admiration — стать предметом всеобщего восхищения

elicit a reply — добиться ответа

Синонимический ряд:

obtain (verb) bleed; derive; draw; draw out; educe; evince; evoke; extort; extract; gain; invoke; milk; obtain; summon

English-Russian base dictionary > elicit

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